A Dramatic Twist: 

The Accession of King Richard III

 

    Richard Plantagenet, Duke of Gloucester, acceded to the throne of England as King Richard III on 26 June 1483. But how did someone, who was originally 5^th in line, seize the crown in a matter of months? Today, we will discuss Richard’s almost impossible accession as King of England.

King Richard III, Barthel II, c. 1520

    Richard Plantagenet was the eleventh of twelve children born to Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York, and his wife, Cecily Neville. Richard’s childhood was spent in the shadow of the tumultuous time we now know as the Wars of the Roses. Richard’s father, the Duke of York, made a play for the throne, as King Henry VI was an inept king. For years, the Yorks would fight their cousins, the Lancasters, in a disastrous tug of war for power, which resulted in the death of the Duke of York and his second son, Edmund Plantagenet, among many others.

 

    The Duke of York’s eldest son, Edward Plantagenet, continued his father’s work, winning battle after battle, and was eventually crowned King Edward IV. Edward IV elevated his brothers to the peerage- George was named the Duke of Clarence and Richard, the Duke of Gloucester. George and Richard were both made Knights of the Garter and Knights of the Bath.

King Edward IV, Unknown, c. 1540

    Richard was the quintessential chivalric knight of the time. Most importantly, he was loyal to his brother, Edward IV. Richard’s elder brother, George, Duke of Clarence, on the other hand, was not. George was never satisfied- he was resentful of living in his elder brother’s shadow. He wanted power for himself; what he had was never enough. George allied himself, against his own York family, with the Lancastrians during the period now known as the Readeption- when Edward IV was forced into exile and Henry VI was placed back on the throne. Unlike George, Richard chose to back his brother and fled into exile with Edward IV. George’s resentment, jealousy and constant plotting, combined with his erratic behavior, would cost him his life. He was found guilty of treason and, according to lore, was drowned in a barrel of Malmsey wine. Because of George’s attainder, his son and heir, Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, was disinherited and debarred from inheriting the throne.

George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence, Lucas Cornelisz de Kock, 16c

    When Richard arrived back in England with Edward IV, they embarked on a military campaign to recapture Edward’s crown. Richard proved himself a brave and strong military leader. Once Edward IV was securely back on the throne, Richard returned to the north with his wife, Anne Neville. Edward IV gave Richard significant authority, and he was well regarded by his subjects. The Scots were a constant threat in the north and Richard managed to keep them at bay. In 1482, Richard recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed from Scotland and it has remained in English hands ever since.

 

    Edward IV died unexpectedly on 9 April 1483. Edward’s son, also named Edward, was his heir and successor. However, since Edward died so young and unexpectedly, there were no plans put in place for the accession of his son, King Edward V. Edward IV named Richard as Lord Protector of Edward V, as he was only 12 years old and unable to rule in his own right. Upon hearing of the news of his brother’s passing, Richard immediately departed Yorkshire for London. At the same time, Edward IV’s widow, Dowager Queen Elizabeth Woodville, ordered that her brother, Anthony Woodville, bring Edward V to London. Richard had corresponded with Anthony Woodville, and they agreed to meet at Northampton, on the way to London.

 

Queen Elizabeth Woodville, Unknown, 16c

    Interestingly, Anthony had sent Edward V ahead, further south to Stony Stratford, with the armed guard. Anthony, along with his nephew Richard Grey, and Thomas Vaughan, met Richard at Northampton. Shockingly, Richard had the three men immediately arrested. Richard accused them of treason against the Lord Protector. They were taken to Pontefract Castle where they were executed on 25 June 1483.

 

    Richard retrieved Edward V from Stony Stratford and advised him that his uncle, Anthony Woodville, his half-brother, Richard Grey, and Thomas Vaughan had plotted against Richard and had been executed. It has been said that Edward V did not believe Richard and defended his uncle and half-brother, stating they would never do such a thing.

 

    Richard escorted Edward V to London. Arriving on the 4 May, Edward V was first placed into the Bishop’s apartments, but then quickly moved to the royal apartments at the Tower of London. It was custom that most kings spent their time awaiting their coronation at the Tower. All seemed in order.

 

    Whilst all of this was happening, Dowager Queen Elizabeth Woodville fled into sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. There were factions at court and Elizabeth was not well liked. Her most prized possession, her son, Edward V, was in the hands of her perceived enemy. Elizabeth feared for her safety and for that of her family. What Elizabeth did have, was her second son, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York. The Duke of York went into sanctuary with his mother, alongside his sisters and half-brother, Thomas Grey.

 

    Richard, Duke of Gloucester and Lord Protector, began to suspect Elizabeth of plotting against him. In a second completely shocking episode, Richard accused William Hastings, his ally and Edward IV’s best friend, of conspiring with the Dowager Queen. Hastings had never been fond of the Woodville family, so this accusation seems to have come out of nowhere. Richard confronted Hastings during a council meeting. Hastings was dragged out of the chamber and brought to the courtyard where he was immediately executed. Hastings was not offered a trial and did not have the chance to defend himself. It makes me wonder, what did Hastings know that Richard could not risk a trial and also required Hastings’ immediate death?

 

    On 16 June 1483, Dowager Queen Elizabeth Woodville found herself in sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, surrounded by armed guards of Richard, Duke of Gloucester and Lord Protector. Richard demanded Elizabeth release her second son, Richard, Duke of York, into his custody. Edward V was lonely in the Tower of London, awaiting his coronation which was planned for the 22 June. Richard told Elizabeth his brother should be with him to keep him company. Many disparage Elizabeth for handing over her second son, but I don’t think she had much of a choice. The Abbey was surrounded and if she didn’t send her son out, the armed men would certainly come in. She had the many lives of her children in her hands, and she was forced to trust in Richard. Elizabeth ultimately handed over Richard, Duke of York.

King Edward V and Richard, Duke of York, The Princes in the Tower, John Everett Millais, 1878

    On 22 June, an important event took place. It was not the planned coronation of King Edward V, but rather, in a dramatic twist, a sermon was preached outside of Old St. Paul’s Cathedral by Ralph Shaa, which declared the marriage between Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville invalid, and their children, illegitimate. Richard had been previously informed of a pre-contract of marriage between Edward IV and Eleanor Butler, and he believed this was the perfect time to bring the scandal to light.

 

    The sermon given declared Richard the rightful King of England. After hearing the sermon, a petition was drawn up by the citizens of London, urging Richard to take the throne. Initially reluctant, Richard accepted the position on 26 June 1483. He was crowned as King Richard III at Westminster Abbey on 6 July 1483. King Richard III, initially 5th in the line of succession, was the last Plantagenet king to be crowned.

 

    The two Princes in the Tower, Edward V and Richard, Duke of York, were never seen again.

 

 

THE CASKET LETTERS

 

    Mary, Queen of Scots, had been imprisoned at Loch Leven Castle on 17 June 1567. She had previously surrendered to the Protestant nobles of Scotland during negotiations with her Catholic army at the non-battle of Carberry Hill. While Mary was negotiating with the Protestants, her army gradually dissipated, leaving her with no other option but surrender. While imprisoned at Loch Leven, Mary miscarried the twins she was carrying, of her second husband, James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, and was forced to abdicate her throne in favor of her one-year-old son, King James VI. Nearly a year later, Mary escaped Loch Leven Castle and sought refuge in England from her cousin, Queen Elizabeth I.

Mary, Queen of Scots, Unknown, 16c, National Portrait Gallery, London

 

    A few days after Mary’s imprisonment at Loch Leven, a silver casket was found in the possession of her husband, Bothwell, which contained eight letters, two marriage contracts, and twelve sonnets. The marriage contracts that were found allegedly proved that Mary had agreed to marry Bothwell before his divorce was finalized. Mary and Bothwell’s marriage had already caused scandalized mouths to drop, as Bothwell and Mary were both implicated in the murder of Mary’s first husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. The eight letters that were found would become known to history as the mysterious “Casket Letters”.

 

Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, and Mary, Queen of Scots, Unknown, 16c, Hardwick Hall

    So, what were these letters, what were their implications, and did Mary, Queen of Scots, author them?

 

    The Casket Letters were supposedly written by Mary to Bothwell. One of these letters specifically implicated Mary and Bothwell in the murder of Lord Darnley, which took place in February 1567. The letters were brought to England by Mary’s illegitimate half-brother, the Earl of Moray.  Queen Elizabeth I ordered a commission to investigate whether or not Mary was involved in Darnley’s murder and the Casket Letters served as evidence. During this time, Mary was imprisoned in various castles and estates in England.

 

James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, Unknown, 1566, Scottish National Gallery

    Unfortunately, the Casket Letters did not survive the test of time. Without them, they cannot be examined to determine whether they were forgeries or not. Some believe they were forgeries as they were the only source of evidence of Mary’s involvement in the murder. What does still exist, are the transcripts and translations of the letters, alongside William Cecil’s notes.

William Cecil, Lord Burghley, attributed to Marcus Gheeraerts, c. 1585, National Portrait Gallery

 

    Perhaps the Earl of Moray had set Mary up so she would be forced to abdicate her throne. Mary was a constant threat to Elizabeth I’s throne, and so, some have thought the letters fabricated by William Cecil to get rid of Mary once and for all. The outcome of the commission was Elizabethan in nature- there was not enough evidence to convict Mary of the crime, nor was there enough to acquit. The commission did serve its purpose, however. Mary’s reputation was smeared, her throne abdicated, and most importantly, in Elizabeth’s custody for the remainder of Mary’s life.

James Stewart, Earl of Moray, Hans Eworth, 1561, Darnaway Castle, Scotland

 

    The problem with the Casket Letters is that Mary’s rival, her half-brother, the Earl of Moray, produced them. The Earl of Moray was an ambitious man and I believe he wanted to rule Scotland. He could only do this if his half-sister was out of his way. I believe the Earl of Moray saw both Mary and Darnley as rivals to the throne. Therefore, in my opinion, Moray orchestrated Darnley’s murder, knowing that Mary would be implicated. When that didn’t go exactly according to plan, I believe Moray had the letters fabricated.

 

 

 

MERCY, MERCY, MERCY:

THE ARREST OF THOMAS CROMWELL

 

    How did King Henry VIII’s right hand man, fixer of all things, suffer such a tremendous downfall? Thomas Cromwell was brought in to orchestrate the downfall of Queen Anne Boleyn, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, religious reform, and the marriage to Anne of Cleves. Today, we will explore how all Cromwell achieved, ultimately, lead to his demise.

Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1532-1533

 

    After the death of Queen Anne Boleyn, Cromwell thought himself to be safe. Cromwell and Anne had butted heads in the last months of her life over the Dissolution of the Monasteries. In the dissolutions, Cromwell had furthered his religious reform of England while also filling Henry VIII’s coffers. Anne was not on side with the crown profiting from the dissolutions; she had thought the money would be better spent on charity, education and institutions. Anne had even threatened Cromwell by approving of a sermon that essentially warned the king of his “evil councilors”. Anne went so far as telling Cromwell she’d like to see his head off. With the problem of Queen Anne Boleyn taken care of, Cromwell failed to notice other enemies waiting in the shadows.

 

Queen Anne Boleyn, Unknown, c. 1550, Hever Castle

    Cromwell continued to further his religious reform but he failed to notice Henry VIII becoming increasingly uneasy about the extent of religious change. Henry VIII was not a religious reformer- he was a Catholic through and through. He only agreed to religious reform when it suited him (i.e. his ability to marry Anne Boleyn). Importantly, Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, was a major figure in the conservative faction and continuously undermined Cromwell’s religious initiatives.

 

Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1539

    At the same time, Cromwell was cognizant of the increasing isolation of Henry VIII as a European power. Henry VIII had been excommunicated by the Catholic Church and was in constant struggle with Spain and France, both countries continually entering into secret alliances behind Henry’s back. Cromwell immediately recognized the need for the protection of England from the duplicitous countries.

 

    Cromwell began to look else were for support and his solution was the Protestant Schmalkaldic League. The League was created to provide protection to its members should King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, invade. Cromwell recognized the benefits of this alliance. At the time, the League was not accepting new members, or rather, would not accept Henry VIII. Cromwell proposed the idea of Henry entering into a marriage treaty with one of the daughters of the House of Cleves, perhaps in an effort to wiggle England into the League.

 

    Henry VIII decided that he would marry Anne of Cleves. Anne of Cleves arrived in England in 1539, ahead of the marriage ceremony. Whatever the reason, upon Henry meeting Anne, he decided he was repulsed by her and did not want to go through with the wedding. Henry tasked Cromwell with the unenviable mission of dissolving the marriage treaty. Cromwell could not find a solution, or would not find a solution, and the marriage went ahead. It was, however, never consummated. Henry was furious. He couldn’t fathom how he, King of England, would be forced to marry someone he did not want. Cromwell underestimated Henry’s resentment, increasingly growing over religious reform and a marriage of which he wanted no part.

 

Queen Anne of Cleves, Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1539

    

    In a move that can only be described as SO Henry VIII, Henry rewarded Cromwell with the Earldom of Essex on 18 April 1540. Henry liked to lull his subjects into a state of contentment and ease prior to his fatal strike. Henry fully believed in keeping his friends close, and his enemies closer. Cromwell was grateful for the royal favor and did not see his enemies slowly emerging from the shadows.

 

    Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, was sent to France to further an Anglo-Franco alliance, against Charles V. Norfolk was received by King Francis I of France and the proposition was favorable. In one visit, Norfolk had undermined Cromwell’s work with the Duchy of Cleves and changed the balance of power in England’s favor. Furthermore, war was on the horizon between the Duchy of Cleves and Charles V. The alliance with Cleves, the brainchild of Cromwell, would put England in a precarious position of declaring war on France, reversing the positive diplomacy between the two countries. France had recently solidified an alliance with the Ottoman Empire, the enemy of Charles V. Henry wanted no part of this.

 

    The Duke of Norfolk and Bishop Stephen Gardiner saw a unique opportunity. Henry VIII seemed to be taken with Norfolk’s niece, Katherine Howard. Katherine began to be pushed forward by Norfolk and Gardiner and they began planting ideas into Henry’s mind, such as: Cromwell could have secured an annulment from Anne of Cleves, Henry’s subjects were against Cromwell’s reforms, Cromwell was a heretic and he was working against the crown.

 

Possibly Queen Katherine Howard, Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1540

    Cromwell was in the council chamber at Westminster, when at 3 PM on 10 June 1540, the Captain of the Guard entered the chamber and told Cromwell he had a warrant for his arrest.  The French Ambassador stated Cromwell threw his hat down on the chamber floor, furious. He looked about the room, asked the council members, was this the reward for his services? The council replied he should be judged according to the laws Cromwell himself had made. Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, strolled up to Cromwell and snatched the Order of St. George from his neck. Cromwell’s Garter was then untied. Cromwell was put in a barge and brought to the Tower of London, via the Thames. Cromwell’s residence was then inventoried and goods were taken to the King’s treasury- a sure sign they would not be returned.

 

    The Spanish Chronicle differs slightly in its telling of the arrest: Cromwell arrived at Westminster and the meeting went ahead. Afterwards, the members attended dinner at Westminster Palace. While walking, a wind blew off Cromwell’s hat and it fell to the ground. It was custom when one man’s hat fell off, the others doffed theirs in a sign of respect. The other men kept their hats on. Cromwell took this as a bad omen. While dining, no one conversed with Cromwell. After dinner, the council entered the council chamber once more, and when Cromwell went to his in his chair, the Duke of Norfolk said, “traitors do not sit amongst gentlemen”.

    A Bill of Attainder was brought against Cromwell declaring him guilty of treason. Cromwell languished in the Tower of London, his execution put on hold until the amicable annulment between Henry VIII and Queen Anne of Cleves. Cromwell wrote a letter to Henry in support of the annulment, ending the correspondence chillingly with “Most gracious Prince, I cry for mercy, mercy, mercy”.

 

    Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, was beheaded on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540. Ironically, King Henry VIII married Queen Katherine Howard on the same day. In a shocking move, while delivering his speech on the scaffold, Cromwell seemed to deny his Protestant faith and alluded to dying a Catholic. Cromwell’s head was placed on a spike on London Bridge and his remains were laid to rest in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London.

 

Memorial Plaque of Those Buried in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London, © All Things Tudors, May 2023

    In time, King Henry VIII came to regret Cromwell’s death. He later alluded Cromwell’s downfall was brought about by pretexts and false accusations of the factions of the court. I don’t believe Henry VIII felt guilty about his death in a personal way; I believe Henry was selfishly remorseful of killing a perfectly capable minister of whom he could leave the work of the realm.