THE TRAGIC LIFE OF MARGARET POLE

 

    Margaret Pole was born on 14 August 1473. She was the daughter of George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence. George was a pesky middle child, born between two Kings of England, Edward IV and Richard III. George was never satisfied in life, constantly wanting more while feeling as though what he had wasn’t enough. George was a changeable character, often aligning with those who would satiate his hunger for ambition. George assisted his brother, King Edward IV to the throne, but turned to the Lancastrians when Edward IV refused to allow him more lands, power and advantageous marriages. George assisted his cousin, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, known to history as the Kingmaker, depose Edward IV and return King Henry VI to the throne during the period now known as the Readeption. Edward IV took back his throne and brought George back on side, always keeping one eye on him.

 

Portrait of an Unknown Woman, thought to be Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, Unknown, c. 1535

    The final straw for Edward IV occurred when George attempted to marry Mary, Duchess of Burgundy. Edward IV could not allow this marriage to take place as it would deliver George the power and means to intensify the rebellions he had already put in place. George was eventually arrested for treason and, allegedly, was executed by drowning in a barrel of Malmsey wine. Margaret lost her father at the age of 5. She wore a bracelet throughout her life, of which dangled a wine barrel charm, perhaps in remembrance of her father, giving the story a particular amount of credence.

George Plantagenet, Duke of Clarence, Lucas Cornelisz de Kock, 16c

     Margaret’s mother was Isabel Neville, eldest daughter of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. She and George had married, without Edward IV’s approval, on 11 July 1469. Together, Isabel and George had two surviving children, Margaret, and her brother, Edward Plantagenet. Isabel died on 22 December 1476, most likely from complications from childbirth. Isabel had given birth to Richard Plantagenet in October 1476, but he unfortunately only lived until January 1477. Margaret was now an orphan.

 

Isabel Neville, Countess of Clarence, Rous Roll, c. 1483

    Margaret’s maternal grandfather, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, stayed on side with the Lancastrians and was killed at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471.

    More tumultuous times would follow. Margaret’s uncle, Edward IV died in February 1478. Margaret’s cousin, Edward V, should have become King, but her uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, had Edward V and his brother Richard, declared illegitimate. This left the throne wide open for Richard to take, as Margaret’s brother, Edward, was barred from the throne because of the Act of Attainder that was passed against their father, George. Margaret would have witnessed her uncle become King Richard III. Tragedy would strike Margaret again, when her cousins, Edward V and Richard, Duke of York, were held in the Tower of London, never to be seen again. They would become known to history as the Princes in the Tower.

The Princes in the Tower, Sir John Everett Millais, 1878

 

    At this point, Margaret’s life was in constant limbo. However, the crown was still in her family. That would all change on 22 August 1485, when Henry Tudor invaded England and killed Margaret’s uncle, Richard III, at the Battle of Bosworth. Henry Tudor became King Henry VII. This had its pros and cons for Margaret. Elizabeth of York, her cousin, married Henry VII and became Queen of England. Elizabeth of York was always in Margaret’s corner, fighting her for family when she could. However, this meant that the crown was no longer in the York family. It made Margaret and her brother Edward claimants to the throne of England. Rivals would be exactly how Henry VII viewed the Plantagenet siblings.

 

    While Margaret remained free, Edward was imprisoned at the Tower of London at only 10 years old. He would remain there for the next fourteen years. After multiple pretenders to the throne, rebellions, and an ultimatum from the Spanish Monarchy, Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, was found guilty of treason. He was executed on 28 November 1499 on Tower Hill. Margaret, already an orphan, lost her only sibling.

Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, Rous Roll, c. 1483

     However, things took a turn for the better for Margaret when she married Richard Pole. Pole was a Tudor man, however, I think he treated Margaret with great kindness. Margaret needed kindness and grace in her life. Together, they had five children. I think, perhaps, this was the happiest time in Margaret’s life.

 

    That happiness would be ripped from Margaret in 1505, when Richard Pole died. She was now a widow, without income, and five children to care for. Bereft, Margaret would give her son, Richard Pole, to the church. Richard Pole would go on to have an extraordinary career in the church, but would become a thorn in the backside of King Henry VIII, which would ultimately lead to Margaret’s demise.

 

    Things began to look up for Margaret in 1509 when Henry VII died and his son assumed the throne as King Henry VIII. Margaret was appointed as Queen Catherine of Aragon’s lady in waiting, possibly a tribute to their time together, when Margaret cared for Catherine when she was first married to Henry VIII’s brother, Arthur Tudor. In 1512, Margaret extraordinarily was restored to her rightful inheritance from her father, as Countess of Salisbury, in her own right. She was only one of two women who held that right in the 16^th century. By 1538, Margaret was one of the wealthiest in England.

 

    But, as the wheel of fortune is constantly turning in 16^th century England, Margaret would not stay in favor for long. Remember her son I told you about- Reginald Pole? He became so irksome to Henry VIII, over on the continent, opposing the divorce from Queen Catherine of Aragon and vehement against the King’s relationship with Anne Boleyn. Later, the Exeter Conspiracy would come to light, which sought to remove Henry VIII from power after his break from the Roman Catholic Church. Margaret’s son, Geoffrey Pole, was arrested and brought in for questioning.  Geoffrey confessed that he and his family had corresponded with his brother Reginald about this plot. This made Reginald Pole public enemy number one. Margaret, her son, Henry Pole, Lord Montagu, and Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter, were all arrested on charges of treason in November 1538. All three were found guilty and sentenced to death.

 

Cardinal Reginald Pole, after Sebastiano del Piombo, c. 1549

    Margaret was held in the Tower of London for two and half years. On the morning of 27 May 1541, she was taken to the scaffold. Margaret suffered the worst beheading, in that the inexperience axe man, it was said, took eleven strokes to complete the execution. According to the Imperial Ambassador, Eustace Chapuys, the main executioner had been sent north to deal with rebels. She was 67 years old and arguably the worst of many stains during Henry VIII’s reign. Margaret was laid to rest in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula in the Tower of London.

Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, Memorial Plaque in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula in the Tower of London, © All Things Tudors, May 2023

    On 29 December 1886, Pope Leo XIII beatified Margaret Pole as a Catholic martyr. Her son, Reginald Pole, would serve Queen Mary I as the last Catholic Archbishop of Canterbury. 

 

Meddling in the Execution of Queen Anne Boleyn and Judging the Best

 

    Queen Anne Boleyn was executed on 19 May 1536.

 

Queen Anne Boleyn, Unknown, c. 1550, Hever Castle

    Anne received mass at dawn from her almoner, John Skip. She then broke her fast at 7 AM. If I knew I was to be murdered based on complete lies and fabrication of evidence, I feel eating would be the last thing I would think about. Who knows? Perhaps Anne was just going through the motions and did not eat a morsel. I know I wouldn’t have been able to.

 

    Around 8 AM, the Constable of the Tower of London, Master Kingston, arrived to escort Anne to the scaffold. Contrary to belief, the scaffold was erected near where the queue begins for the Crown Jewels today- the western side of the White Tower.

Crown Jewels at the Tower of London,  © All Things Tudors, May 2023

    Anne wore a dark colored damask robe trimmed with ermine, a crimson kirtle, and an English hood. Anne climbed the scaffold stairs and gave her last speech to the crowd, who included Thomas Cromwell, Charles Brandon, and Henry Fitzroy, to name a few. Anne’s speech was as follows:

 

“Good Christin people, I have not come here to preach a sermon; I have come here to die. For according to the law and by the law I am judged to die, and therefore I will speak nothing against it. I am come hither to accuse no man, nor to speak of that whereof I am accused and condemned to die, but I pray God save the King and send him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was there never, and to me he was ever a good, a gentle, and a sovereign lord. And if any person will meddle of my cause, I require them to judge the best. And thus I take my leave of the world and of you all, and I heartily desire you all to pray for me”.

 

    Anne exhibited such bravery while giving this speech. She did not resort to calling out lies and fabrications, she didn’t preach, she did not play the victim. Anne faced death head on (no pun intended) with an abundant amount of courage most of us can only dream of having.

 

    Once Anne’s hood was removed, she began to exhibit anxiety. Anne wanted to be ready for the sword’s connection, so she kept looking around to see when the executioner would grab the sword. Anne must have seen this style of execution before, perhaps while she lived at the Palace of Mechelen. Her anxiety proved correct- the executioner called for his sword and Anne’s gaze followed the executioner’s. Without knowing it, while gazing off into the distance, the executioner crept up behind her, brandished his weapon, and killed Anne with one swift stroke. The expert swordsman was from Calais and had been ordered before her trial had even begun.

 

    Anne’s body was placed in a chest and laid to rest in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula. Anne was the first Queen of England to be executed, but she wouldn’t be the last.

                                   The Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London,  © All Things Tudors, May 2023
 

    But why did this happen? Why did Anne have to die? I think the reasoning is quite simpler than we usually make it. It had been no secret King Henry VIII had been courting Jane Seymour for some months at this point. Historically, Jane has been viewed as a meek and mild woman, quite the opposite of Anne. I would posit, IF she was so different from Anne, would she really have taken the same exact path Anne had in not giving in to Henry VIII? After all, it took Henry and Anne about 6 or 7 years before they were married. I certainly think she did put him off at first, after all, this was how Henry VIII liked to chase his women. But eventually, I do think Jane gave in to Henry and I would put forth that by the end of April, Jane began exhibiting signs of pregnancy. This was why events unfolded so quickly during the Spring of 1536, why Cromwell took down his adversaries, and why Queen Anne Boleyn had to die. Henry VIII did not want another Katherine of Aragon situation on his hands. If he had the possibility of obtaining a legitimate male heir, Henry was going to seize the opportunity. This would also explain the betrothal of Henry and Jane, the day after Anne was executed, and their marriage eleven days later.

 

                                        Anne's Memorial Slab at the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London,  © All Things Tudors, May 2023

However, Jane did not give birth to her first child, Edward, until October 1537. Prior to January 1537, when Jane presumably conceived Edward, she was constantly hounded with whether she was pregnant or not. Some had even commented that it was odd Jane had not yet fallen pregnant from May 1536 until 1537. In this theory I am putting forward, I would argue since Jane had fallen pregnant relatively quickly in 1536, the rumors possibly stemmed from her conceiving quickly once and then not again for almost a year. Unfortunately, Jane and Henry most likely lost the child that had given Henry hope again. Henry VIII had changed all of England to marry Anne Boleyn, in order to have a male heir, and it seems that Henry VIII killed Queen Anne Boleyn for the same reason. There were no lengths to which he would not go.

                                     Memorial Outside the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London,  © All Things Tudors, May 2023

No Strangers to Scandal
The Love Story of Charles and Mary Brandon

 

    Charles Brandon was no stranger to scandal. The year was 1515, and he was about to embark on his most scandalous voyage yet.

     

    Mary Tudor, younger sister of King Henry VIII, had been sent to France in 1514, at the age of 18, to marry King Louis XII. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and Henry had worked out a peace treaty with France and marriage to King Louis was part of the deal. At 52 years old, Louis was a great deal older than Mary. Mary travelled to France with her maids in waiting, to include Anne Boleyn, and arrived in October. Mary would not have to suffer her marriage for very long- King Louis XII died less than three months later. Mary was now officially Dowager Queen of France.

 

    King Henry VIII was under no obligation to France any longer. He wanted to bring his sister back home. Who, you ask, will he entrust to bring back the Dowager Queen of France? None other than his best friend, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.

 

    Brandon was a childhood friend of Henry’s. In fact, his father, William Brandon, was King Henry VII’s standard bearer at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. William Brandon was unfortunately killed during the battle by King Richard III. Perhaps this was a kind act of King Henry VII? Allowing William Brandon’s son to be brought up with his own children, in reward for his acts of valor? It appears Charles was the only person in Henry’s life who was able to retain power, and his head for that matter, throughout Henry’s tumultuous reign.

 

    But Brandon had earned that position. Henry had elevated Brandon throughout his reign, giving him more leadership roles in battles and positions of power. In fact, in September of 1513, after Tournai surrendered, the keys to the city were given to Henry. Henry quickly passed the keys off to Brandon, a great honor. There were many celebrations after the surrender of Tournai and that is where Brandon first met Margaret of Austria.

 

Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy, Bernard van Orley, c. 1510-1520

    

    Margaret of Austria was the daughter of Maximilian, Holy Roman Emperor. She was a widow twice over at this point. She swore to never marry again. But Henry had other plans- he thought Brandon would be a great match for her. The scandalous story goes that one-night, Brandon fell upon his knees before Margaret of Austria. He reached for her hand and removed a ring she had been wearing. Brandon put the ring on his own finger. Margaret laughed and asked for the ring back. Eventually Brandon returned the ring, but he wouldn’t stop there. On a second occasion he did the same thing. Margaret no longer found it amusing but, rather, was annoyed Brandon would think that he, of a much lower status then she, would think to have her for a wife. It was the scandal of Christendom and angered the Holy Roman Emperor, the most powerful man, and Henry’s foe.

 

Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, Albrecht Durer, 1519 

    After King Louis XII’s death in January 1515, Brandon was dispatched to France to retrieve Mary and as much of her dowry as possible. Before leaving, Henry forced Brandon to swear he would not wed Mary before arriving in England. This, coupled with Mary’s agreement to marry Louis with the stipulation that should she outlive him, she would be free to marry whomsoever she chose, is very interesting indeed. This leads me to believe Mary and Brandon had some sort of romantic relationship prior to her departure for France. It also leads me to believe Henry was very aware of the relationship.

 

    Either way, upon Brandon arriving in Paris, Mary took matters into her own hands and offered herself in marriage. Brandon agreed and the two were secretly wed in France. The exact date of the wedding is not known, but more than likely occurred in February. What is known is the couple did not have the permission of King Henry VIII. Even more, the two were explicitly told to not marry until they were on English soil. For the first time in his life, Brandon had committed treason- he wed a member of the royal family without permission.

 

    The pair decided their best course of action would be to get ahead of the rumors. Both engaged in letters to the king in which they apologized, stated they acted out of love, and were indebted to Henry forever. Brandon reminded Henry of their long friendship and Mary reminded Henry of his promise to marry freely. With Wolsey’s help, Henry finally gave in to his sister and new brother-in-law. Brandon and Mary were married in a public ceremony in France on 31 March 1515. They set sail across the English Channel a few days later. Mary was returning home with her husband.

 

    In exchange for Henry’s forgiveness, the couple were forced to hand over Mary’s dowry, to include her plate and jewels, pay an exorbitant amount in fines, and Brandon was forced to give up his wardship of Lady Lisle (not the ward he would later marry…but that’s another scandalous story for another day!). There are no records to indicate the couple was ever banished from court, contrary to modern belief. Brandon and Mary were formally wed in England at Greenwich Palace on 13 May 1515.

 

Wedding Portrait of Charles and Mary Brandon, Attributed to Jan Gossaert, c. 1516

    

    After a brief honeymoon, the couple would return to court later in 1515. Brandon and Mary would remain married until her death in 1533. They had four children together. Contrary to belief, Henry did not seem to harbor any feelings of ill will towards the marriage. In fact, the tremendous fine they were supposed to have paid, was never paid in full. Most strikingly, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, had committed treason and was allowed to keep his head.

 

 

THE LAST LETTER OF QUEEN ANNE BOLEYN

FACT OR FORGERY?

    Queen Anne Boleyn allegedly wrote the last letter of her life, to her husband, King Henry VIII, on 6 May 1536.

Queen Anne Boleyn, Unknown, c. 1550, Hever Castle

 

    The letter was purported to have been written during her incarceration in the Tower of London. In this letter, Anne claimed her innocence and even goes so far as to tell the king “But let not your grace ever imagine that your poor wife will be brought to acknowledge a fault, where not so much as a thought ever proceeded”. She asked for a fair trial and asked that Henry not listen to the falsehoods that came so easily from the mouths of her enemies. She also insinuated her situation arose from Henry’s wandering eye, aimed at Jane Seymour, and wrote she hoped God would pardon him and her enemies for the injustice done unto her. Anne pleaded with Henry that his daughter, Princess Elizabeth, is kept in his good graces and does not suffer the false rumors and accusations against her mother. Anne concludes the letter with sorrow for her fellow inmates with whom she was arrested. Anne requested that only she bear the burden of Henry’s wrath and not the innocent men.

               

Queen Anne Boleyn's Last Letter, curtesy of Luminarium.org

    So, was this letter indeed written by Queen Anne Boleyn or was it a forgery? The letter was initially discovered amongst Thomas Cromwell’s papers after his execution in 1540. It is thought this was a copy of an original letter Anne had written. But why would Thomas Cromwell keep a copy of this letter? Was he feeling sentimental perhaps? That’s not the Thomas Cromwell I have come to know over the last eighteen years.

     The arguments are enticing for Anne to have been the original author of this letter. Firstly, the handwriting does not match Anne’s. We have a few letters that have been authenticated as Anne’s penmanship, but this does not match. However, we need to keep in mind this letter is a copy of an original. Therefore, the handwriting would not have been Anne’s to begin with. It is also a possibility Anne could have dictated the letter to one of the ladies that were her companions during her incarceration in the Tower.

     Most historians claim the letter is too bold to have been written by Anne Boleyn. In fact, I would use this as an argument that perhaps the letter was written by Anne. Anne was a woman who spoke her mind and had a quick temper. This letter does just that. Anne stands her ground and lays out the facts, as she sees them. She feels responsible for the treatment that her daughter would receive and that the five men who were arrested with her, would lose their lives because of her. This sounds just like Anne to me. It is said that the letter is written in too familiar a fashion and there was no way a prisoner in the Tower of London would write to their King in this way. Well, Anne wasn’t just a prisoner in the Tower. She was his wife- of course she would write to Henry in this manner. They had been through hell and back again during the “Great Matter” and had a daughter together. I would also argue that perhaps Anne was trying to humanize Henry. She was trying to save her life and the lives of five innocent men. She was attempting to appeal to Henry’s affections and perhaps get him to see her the way he used to. It was, however, in vain.

     It is also interesting to note that Anne had given a spectacular speech during her trial. The letter echoes the sentiments of her trial speech, which leads to an assumption that she wrote the letter. However, Anne’s speech was recorded and this letter could have been authored at a later date reflecting the speech so as to give the reader the impression of Anne’s authorship.

     Lastly, there is no obvious sign for a motive in forging the letter. The letter did not prevent Anne’s death nor did it bring her back to life. The only motive I could potentially think of, is if the letter was forged during the Elizabethan era, perhaps one thought they would be in Queen Elizabeth I’s good graces if one happened to have found a long lost letter written by her mother.

     The arguments for the letter not being authentic are more profound. Henry would not have allowed Anne access to parchment and ink. Anne could have written letters to anyone about anything. I don’t believe Henry would have risked this. While this letter is written very eloquently, Anne tended to use complimentary persuasion as a tactic to obtain what she wanted. I don’t see any evidence of this in her last letter.

     Anne signs the letter as “Anne Bullen”. This may seem like a miniscule detail, however, it requires a closer examination. Most first thoughts would be, well, yeah… that was her name so it makes sense that she would sign it like that. However, Anne spelt her last name the way we do today, Boleyn. In 1525, Anne’s father was elevated to Lord Rochford. At this point, Anne dropped Boleyn and began styling herself Anne Rochford. It was not common for a daughter to use the title of her father. But this was SO Anne. Why should George be the only child allowed to use his father’s title? This would continue until 1532, when Anne was created Marquess of Pembroke in her own right. Anne would then sign her name as Anne Pembroke. In 1533, Anne married Henry and became Queen Consort. Until the end of her life, she would sign her letters, Anne the Queen. Henry and Anne’s marriage was not declared invalid until 17 May. So why would she sign her last letter reverting all the way back to Anne Bullen, when she was in fact, still Anne the Queen? She even states in the letter that she is his wife; why would she not sign the letter that way to let the thought hit home for Henry?

     Perhaps the most compelling evidence of all is the postscript. The postscript states that the letter was from “The Lady in the Tower”. Perhaps this could have been dark humor in her last days, or perhaps it shows that Anne did not write the letter.  The moniker, The Lady in the Tower, is in the third person- meaning that whoever wrote the postscript did not write the letter. But the letter is signed by Anne, in the first person. More importantly, the handwriting of the letter and the postscript match. They had to have been written by the same person, and for me, that person was not Queen Anne Boleyn.

 

    Margaret Plantagenet (better known as Margaret of York) was born to Richard Plantagenet, 3^rd Duke of York and Cecily Neville, on 3 May 1446. This powerhouse of a female was the sister of not one, but two kings of England: King Edward IV and King Richard III. She was born in Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire.

 

Margaret of York, Unknown, 1468

    Margaret grew up in England during a tumultuous time. King Henry VI was the reigning monarch of her youth, along side his queen, Margaret of Anjou. Henry VI proved to be a weak king. He consistently forgave those who rebelled against him, had poor policy and his mental instability drove the country into near constant power struggles. During his comatose episodes Queen Margaret of Anjou would attempt to rule in his name, but she had favorites. A subject who was not one of those favorites was Richard Plantagenet, 3^rd Duke of York. Richard and Margaret did not get on, to say the least.  Richard was a capable nobleman who brought the country in balance while Henry VI was indisposed and, therefore, Margaret feared his power and ability. When Henry VI regained his senses, Richard’s regency was no longer necessary.

     Richard decided to act. As a descendant of King Edward III, through Edward’s second son (on his mother’s side) and his fourth son (on his father’s side), Richard decided to lay claim to the throne of England. What would ensue would become known as the Wars of the Roses, a bitter rivalry between the houses of Lancaster and York. Eventually Richard, Duke of York, would be killed in battle, but his eldest son, Edward, would take up the claim. Edward ended up victorious and was crowned King Edward IV of England.

King Edward IV, Unknown, c. 1540 

   

    Margaret was a valuable bride now she was of the royal house of England. Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, sent his advisors to England to negotiate with Edward IV  for the hand of his sister in marriage. Edward IV agreed in October 1467. Margaret met Charles the Bold, for the first time, on 27 June 1468. The couple were formally wed on 3 July 1468.

 Charles the Bold, Rogier van der Wyden, c. 1454

    Margaret and Charles would only be married for nine years, and the union would produce no children. Charles the Bold died in battle on 5 January 1477. This is when Margaret became a force to be reckoned with. Margaret took it upon herself to raise Mary, her step-daughter. The two would often talk about Margaret’s experiences as a princess at the court of her brother, King Edward IV. She would tell Mary how she was used a pawn for dynasties and men. Mary listened intently, and would take this guidance to heart. Following Margaret’s advice, Mary married Maximillian of Hapsburg, the son of the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick III, on 18 August 1477. Mary would give birth first to Philip, and asked Margaret to be his godmother. Then would come a girl, which Mary and Maximillian named Margaret. The bond between Mary and Margaret was clear to all.

                            

          Philip the Handsome, Juan de Flandes, c. 1500

                                                                                     

                                                                             Margaret of Austria, Jean Hey, c. 1490

    In 1478, Margaret received the news that her brother, George, Duke of Clarence, had been executed for treason against their brother, King Edward IV. She was grief-stricken but the punches would keep coming. In 1482, Mary fell victim to a hunting accident. During the hunt, Mary fell from her horse and broke her back. She succumbed to her injuries on 27 March 1482. Burgundy was more vulnerable than ever. The Burgundians refused to accept Maximillian as regent for his son Philip. On 23 December 1482, the Treaty of Arras was signed, in which peace with France was agreed. In 1483, her brother and ally, King Edward IV of England, died unexpectedly. Her other brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, would disinherit Edward’s children, and claim the crown for himself as Richard III. Richard III would then be killed at the Battle of Bosworth by Henry Tudor in 1485.

     In 1489, Maximillian returned to Austria, and Margaret of York governed Burgundy. She resumed the guardianship of Philip and Margaret. They would live at the glorious palace of Mechelen, which became a glamorous court. Philip, better known as Philip the Handsome, would later send his children back to Mechelen to be educated. Margaret, better known as Margaret of Austria, would choose Mechelen as her main residence and the capital of the Low Countries, later in life.

    Margaret would then begin a campaign against the House of Lancaster over in England. She blamed Henry Tudor for the defeat of the House of York. She would financially back the pretender to the throne, Lambert Simnel, whom most historians believed had claimed to be Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick. It makes more sense to me, that Lambert Simnel had claimed to be King Edward V, the elder of the Princes in the Tower, eldest son of Edward IV and Queen Elizabeth Woodville. Especially since Henry Tudor had the Earl of Warwick imprisoned in the Tower of London at the time and had no issue presenting him to the public.

     Margaret also financially backed and even acknowledged the pretender, Perkin Warbeck, as her nephew, Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the Princes in Tower. Warbeck proved to be more problematic to King Henry VII than Simnel was. I’m sure this also caused Henry VII to view Margaret of York as quite an annoyance. But Margaret would not give up on her house.

    On 23 November 1503, Margaret of York died at the age of 57. Margaret left behind a legacy of enduring patronage, to include William Caxton, printer of the first book in the English language, which was dedicated to Margaret of York. She was a mother figure to her step-children, Mary and Maximillian, as well as to her grandchildren, Philip the Handsome and Margaret of Austria. Margaret of Austria would do her step-grandmother proud, following in her footsteps of patronage, politics and acumen. The survival of the Burgundian State is a credit to Margaret of York.